Overview

Magnesium is a mineral that is important for normal bone structure in the body. People get magnesium from their diet, but sometimes magnesium supplements are needed if magnesium levels are too low. Dietary intake of magnesium may be low, particularly among women. Magnesium deficiency is also not uncommon among African Americans and the elderly. Low magnesium levels in the body have been linked to diseases such as osteoporosis, high blood pressure, clogged arteries, hereditary heart disease, diabetes, and stroke.

An easy way to remember foods that are good magnesium sources is to think fiber. Foods that are high in fiber are generally high in magnesium. Dietary sources of magnesium include legumes, whole grains, vegetables (especially broccoli, squash, and green leafy vegetables), seeds, and nuts (especially almonds). Other sources include dairy products, meats, chocolate, and coffee. Water with a high mineral content, or "hard" water, is also a source of magnesium.

Magnesium is most commonly used for constipation, as an antacid for heartburn, for low magnesium levels, for pregnancy complications called pre-eclampsia and eclampsia, and for a certain type of irregular heartbeat (torsades de pointes).

Classification

Is a Form of:

Mineral

Primary Functions:

Constipation

Also Known As:

Aspartate de Magnésium, Atomic Number 12, Carbonate de Magnésium

How Does It Work?

Magnesium is required for the proper growth and maintenance of bones. Magnesium is also required for the proper function of nerves, muscles, and many other parts of the body. In the stomach, magnesium helps neutralize stomach acid and moves stools through the intestine.

Uses

• Constipation. Taking magnesium by mouth is helpful as a laxative for constipation and to prepare the bowel for medical procedures.
• Indigestion (dyspepsia). Taking magnesium by mouth as an antacid reduces symptoms of heartburn and indigestion. Various magnesium compounds can be used, but magnesium hydroxide seems to work the fastest.
• Seizures in women with pre-eclampsia. Administering magnesium intravenously (by IV) or as a shot is considered the treatment of choice for eclampsia. Administering magnesium reduces the risk of seizures in women with this condition.
• Low levels of magnesium in the blood (hypomagnesemia). Taking magnesium is helpful for treating and preventing magnesium deficiency. Magnesium deficiency usually occurs when people have liver disorders, heart failure, vomiting or diarrhea, kidney dysfunction, and other conditions.
• A pregnancy complication marked by high blood pressure and protein in the urine (pre-eclampsia). Administering magnesium intravenously (by IV) or as a shot is considered the treatment of choice for preventing seizures in women with pre-eclampsia.

• A type of irregular heartbeat (torsades de pointes).Giving magnesium intravenously (by IV) is helpful for treating a certain type of irregular heartbeat called torsades de pointes.

• Irregular heartbeat (arrhythmias). Giving magnesium intravenously (by IV) or by mouth seems to be helpful for treating irregular heartbeat, also called arrhythmias. It is not yet clear whether magnesium helps reduce irregular heartbeat after heart surgery.
• Asthma. Giving magnesium intravenously (by IV) seems to help treat sudden asthma attacks. However, it might be more beneficial in children than in adults. Taking magnesium using an inhaler might improve breathing in people with asthma, especially when used with the drug salbutamol. But conflicting results exist. Taking magnesium by mouth does not seem to improve attacks in people with long-term asthma.
• Nerve pain in people with cancer. Giving magnesium intravenously (by IV) seems to relieve pain caused by nerve damage due to cancer for several hours.
• Cerebral palsy. The best evidence to date shows that giving magnesium to pregnant women before preterm births can reduce the risk of cerebral palsy in the infant.
• Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). Administering magnesium as a shot seems to improve symptoms of fatigue. However, there is some controversy about its benefits.
• A lung disease that makes it harder to breathe (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or COPD). Administering magnesium intravenously (by IV) seems to help sudden COPD symptoms. Also, taking magnesium using an inhaler, along with the drug salbutamol, seems to reduce sudden COPD symptoms better than salbutamol alone.
• Cluster headache. Giving magnesium intravenously (by IV) seems to relieve cluster headaches.
• Colon cancer, rectal cancer. Research shows that eating more foods with magnesium in them is linked to a reduced risk of colon and rectal cancer. But other research suggests that magnesium might reduce colon cancer risk, but not rectal cancer risk.
• Heart disease (coronary heart disease). Taking magnesium by mouth seems to reduce chest pain attacks and blood clots in people with heart disease.
• Cystic fibrosis. Research shows that taking magnesium by mouth daily for 8 weeks improves lung strength in children with cystic fibrosis.
• Diabetes. Eating a diet with more magnesium is linked with a reduced risk of developing diabetes in adults and overweight children. Research on the effects of magnesium for people with existing type 2 diabetes shows conflicting results. In people with type 1 diabetes, magnesium might slow the development of nerve problems caused by diabetes. In women with diabetes in pregnancy, taking magnesium seems to improve sensitivity to insulin and reduce the levels of sugar in the blood.
• Fibromyalgia. Taking magnesium with malic acid (Super Malic tablets) by mouth seems to reduce pain related to fibromyalgia. Taking magnesium citrate daily for 8 weeks seems to improve some symptoms of fibromyalgia.
• Hearing loss. Taking magnesium by mouth seems to prevent hearing loss in people exposed to loud noise. Also, taking magnesium seems to improve hearing loss in people with sudden hearing loss not related to loud noise. Injecting magnesium by IV might also help improve sudden hearing loss.
• High cholesterol. Taking magnesium chloride and magnesium oxide appears to slightly decrease low-density lipoprotein (LDL or "bad") and total cholesterol levels, and slightly increase in high-density lipoprotein (HDL or "good") cholesterol levels in people with high cholesterol. There is also some evidence that magnesium might lower blood fats called triglycerides in people with high triglyceride levels.
• A grouping of symptoms that increase the risk of diabetes, heart disease, and stroke (metabolic syndrome). People with low magnesium levels are 6-7 times more likely to have metabolic syndrome than people with normal magnesium levels. Higher magnesium intake from diet and supplements is linked with a lower risk of developing metabolic syndrome in healthy women and healthy young adults.
• A disease of heart valves (mitral valve prolapse). Taking magnesium by mouth seems to reduce symptoms of mitral valve prolapse in people with low magnesium levels in their blood.
• Weak and brittle bones (osteoporosis). Taking magnesium by mouth seems to prevent bone loss in older women with osteoporosis. Also, taking estrogen along with magnesium plus calcium and a multivitamin supplement appears to increase bone strength in older women better than estrogen alone.
• Pain after surgery. When administered with anesthesia or given to people after surgery, magnesium seems to increase the amount of time before pain develops and might decrease the need to use pain relievers after surgery. Giving magnesium intravenously (by IV) seems to help reduce pain after a surgical procedure to remove the uterus called a hysterectomy. But magnesium does not seem to help reduce pain in children after tonsil removal.
• Premenstrual syndrome (PMS). Taking magnesium by mouth seems to relieve symptoms of PMS, including mood changes and bloating. Taking magnesium by mouth also seems to prevent premenstrual migraines.
• Chest pain due to blood vessel spasms (vasospastic angina). Giving magnesium intravenously (by IV) seems to prevent blood vessel spasms in people with chest pain caused by spasms in the artery that supplies blood to the heart.

Recommended Dosing

The following doses have been studied in scientific research:

ADULTS

BY MOUTH:

• General: The daily Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) for elemental magnesium are: 19-30 years, 400 mg (men) and 310 mg (women); 31 years and older, 420 mg (men) and 320 mg (women). For pregnant women age 14-18 years, the RDA is 400 mg; 19-30 years, 350 mg; 31-50 years, 360 mg. For lactating women age 14-18 years, the RDA is 360 mg; 19-30 years, 310 mg; 31-50 years, 320 mg. The daily upper intake level (UL) for magnesium is 350 mg for anyone over 8 years old, including pregnant and breast-feeding women.
• For constipation: 8.75-25 grams of magnesium citrate has been used, usually as 150-300 mL in a 290 mg/ 5 mL solution. 2.4-4.8 grams of magnesium hydroxide has also been used. 10-30 grams of magnesium sulfate has also been used. Magnesium salts should only be used for occasional treatment of constipation, and doses should be taken with a full 8 oz glass of water.
• For indigestion (dyspepsia): 400-1200 mg of magnesium hydroxide has been used up to four times daily. 800 mg of magnesium oxide daily has also been used.
• For low levels of magnesium in the blood (hypomagnesemia): 3 grams of magnesium sulfate, taken every 6 hours for four doses, has been used. A 5% solution of magnesium chloride has been used by mouth daily for 16 weeks. Magnesium-rich mineral water (Hepar) containing 110 mg/L has also been used. 10.4 mmol of magnesium lactate, taken by mouth daily for 3 months, has been used. Avoid magnesium oxide and magnesium carbonate.
• For irregular heartbeat (arrhythmias): 2.163 mg of magnesium-DL-hydrogen aspartate and 2.162 mg of potassium-DL-hydrogen aspartate given daily for 21 days has been used.
• For heart disease: 800-1200 mg of magnesium oxide taken daily for 3 months has been used.
• For diabetes: For type 2 diabetes, 2.5 grams of magnesium chloride in a 50 mL solution daily for 16 weeks has been used. 300 mL of salt lake water with naturally high magnesium content diluted with distilled water to contain 100 mg of magnesium per 100 mL of water has been used daily for 30 days. 360 mg of magnesium daily for 4 to 16 weeks has been used. For type 1 diabetes, 300 mg of a specific magnesium gluconate supplement (Ultramagnesium) daily for 5 years has been used.
• For fibromyalgia: Magnesium hydroxide plus malic acid (Super Malic tablets) has been used. 300 mg of magnesium citrate daily for 8 weeks has also been used.
• For hearing loss: 167 mg of magnesium aspartate mixed in 200 mL lemonade, taken daily for 8 weeks or as a single dose, has been used.
• For high cholesterol: 1 gram of magnesium oxide daily for 6 weeks has been used.
• For a grouping of symptoms that increase the risk of diabetes, heart disease, and stroke (metabolic syndrome): 365 mg of magnesium aspartate daily for 6 months has been used.
• For a disease of heart valves (mitral valve prolapse): 1200-1800 mg of magnesium carbonate taken daily for 5 weeks has been used.
• For weak and brittle bones (osteoporosis): 300-1800 mg of magnesium hydroxide taken daily for 6 months, followed by 600 mg of magnesium hydroxide taken daily for 18 months, has been used. 1830 mg of magnesium citrate has been used daily for 30 days. In addition to estrogen, 600 mg of magnesium plus 500 mg of calcium and a multivitamin supplement has been used daily for one year.
• For premenstrual syndrome (PMS): 333 mg of magnesium oxide taken daily for two menstrual cycles has been used. A higher dose of 360 mg elemental magnesium three times daily has been used from the 15th day of the menstrual cycle until menstrual period begins. 360 mg of elemental magnesium taken three times daily for 2 months has been used. A combination of 200 mg of magnesium daily plus 50 mg of vitamin B6 daily has been used.

BY IV:

• For seizures in women with pre-eclampsia: 4-5 grams of magnesium sulfate by IV infusion, followed by 4-5 grams of magnesium sulfate every 4 hours, or 1 to 3 grams of magnesium sulfate per hour by constant IV infusion has been used. Doses should not exceed 30 to 40 grams of magnesium sulfate daily. A higher dose of magnesium sulfate (9-14 grams) followed by a smaller dose (2.5-5 grams every 4 hours for 24 hours) has also been used.
• For low levels of magnesium in the blood (hypomagnesemia): A typical starting dose for mild deficiency is 1 gram of magnesium sulfate intramuscularly (IM) every 6 hours for 4 doses. For more severe deficiency, 5 grams of magnesium sulfate may be given as an intravenous (IV) infusion over 3 hours. To prevent magnesium deficiency, adults typically receive 60-96 mg of elemental magnesium daily.
• For a pregnancy complication marked by high blood pressure and protein in the urine (pre-eclampsia): 4-5 grams of magnesium sulfate by IV infusion, followed by 4-5 grams of magnesium sulfate every 4 hours, or 1 to 3 grams of magnesium sulfate per hour by constant IV infusion has been used. Doses should not exceed 30 to 40 grams of magnesium sulfate daily. A higher dose of magnesium sulfate (9grams) followed by a smaller dose (5 grams every 4 hours for 24 hours) has also been used.
• For a type of irregular heartbeat (torsades de pointes): 1 to 6 grams of magnesium sulfate given by IV over several minutes, followed by an IV infusion has been used.
• For irregular heartbeat (arrhythmias): For reducing irregular heartbeat after a heart attack, 8 grams of magnesium sulfate in 250 mL of solution over 12 hours has been used. For irregular or rapid heartbeat, an IV infusion of 5 grams of magnesium sulfate in 100 mL of solution has been used. Half of the dose is given over 20 minutes, followed by the remainder over 2 hours. For faster heartbeat, a single IV dose of 1-4 grams of magnesium chloride given over 5 minutes has been used. For abnormal heartbeat caused by a pacemaker, 2 grams of magnesium sulfate in 10 mL of solution has been given by IV over 1-10 minutes, followed by 5-10 grams of magnesium sulfate in 250-500 mL of solution over 5 hours.
• For asthma: Doses of 1-2 grams of magnesium sulfate have been given over 20 to 30 minutes. A dose of 78 mg/kg/hour of magnesium sulfate has been given by IV during, and for 30 minutes before, a lung function test.
• For nerve pain in people with cancer: Single doses of 0.5-1 gram of magnesium sulfate have been given as 1 mL or 2 mL of a 50% magnesium sulfate injection over 5-10 minutes.
• For cerebral palsy: For preventing cerebral palsy in the infant, 4 grams of magnesium sulfate has been given by IV over 10-30 minutes to women close to their expected due date. Magnesium sulfate is then sometimes given by IV at a dose of 1 gram per hour until birth or for 24 hours has been used.
• For a lung disease that makes it harder to breathe (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or COPD): 1.2 grams of magnesium sulfate has been given by IV after using an inhaler. 1.2-2 grams of magnesium sulfate in 100-150 mL of solution over 20 minutes has been used.
• For cluster headache: 1 gram of magnesium sulfate over 5 minutes has been used. Single 1 gram doses of magnesium sulfate have also been used.
• For pain after surgery: 5-50 mg/kg of magnesium by IV followed by a continuous IV solution at 6 mg/kg or 500 mg hourly has been used for the duration of the operation up to 48 hours. Also, 3.7-5.5 grams of magnesium in addition to pain medication has been used within 24 hours after surgery. In addition, 3 grams of magnesium sulfate in an IV solution has been used followed by 0.5 grams of magnesium sulfate by IV per hour for 20 hours.
• For chest pain due to blood vessel spasms (vasospastic angina): 65 mg/kg of body weight of magnesium given by IV over 20 minutes has been used.

INJECTED AS A SHOT:

• For seizures in women with pre-eclampsia: 4-5 grams of magnesium sulfate diluted in saline over 10-15 minutes given intravenously (by IV) followed by 5 grams of magnesium sulfate injected as a shot into each buttock, and 2.5 or 5 grams of magnesium sulfate injected as a shot every 4 hours for 24 hours has been used.
• For chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS): Solution containing 1 gram of magnesium sulfate has been given as a shot once weekly for 6 weeks.
• For a pregnancy complication marked by high blood pressure and protein in the urine (pre-eclampsia): 4-5 grams of magnesium sulfate diluted in saline over 10-15 minutes given intravenously (by IV) followed by 5 grams of magnesium sulfate injected as a shot into each buttock, and 5 grams of magnesium sulfate injected as a shot every 4 hours for 24 hours has been used.

INHALED:

• For a lung disease that makes it harder to breathe (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or COPD): 2.5 mg of the drug salbutamol along with 2.5 mL of magnesium sulfate (151 mg per dose), inhaled three times at 30 minute intervals, has been used.

CHILDREN

BY MOUTH:

• General: The daily Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) for elemental magnesium are: Age 1-3 years, 80 mg; 4-8 years, 130 mg; 9-13 years, 240 mg; 14-18 years, 410 mg (boys) and 360 mg (girls). For infants less than one year of age, adequate intake (AI) levels are 30 mg from birth to 6 months and 75 mg from 7 to 12 months. The daily upper intake level (UL) for magnesium is 65 mg for children age 1-3 years, and 110 mg for 4-8 years.
• For cystic fibrosis: 300 mg of magnesium-glycine taken daily for 8 weeks has been used.

BY IV:

• For asthma: 40 mg/kg of magnesium sulfate, up to a maximum of 2 grams, has been given by IV in 100 mL of solution over 20 minutes.

Magnesium Supplements Frequently Asked Questions

What does a magnesium supplement do?

Summary Magnesium supplements may improve a number of health markers, such as blood pressure and blood sugar control. It may also reduce your risk of health conditions such as heart disease, migraine, and depression.

What are the symptoms of low magnesium in the body?

As magnesium deficiency worsens, symptoms may include:

• muscle cramps.
• muscle spasticity.
• personality changes.
• abnormal heart rhythms.

Should I take magnesium supplements?

Most people get more than enough magnesium from foods and do not need to take magnesium supplements. Excessive use of magnesium supplements can be toxic. In addition to what you get from food, the highest dose you should take of magnesium supplements is: 65 mg/day for children ages 1-3.

Which magnesium supplement is best?

Sleep: Magnesium glycinate

Magnesium glycinate is a highly absorbable form of magnesium. It's a good choice if you want to raise your levels quickly, and it's especially a good choice if you get an upset stomach with other forms.

Is it OK to take magnesium every day?

Doses less than 350 mg daily are safe for most adults. In some people, magnesium might cause stomach upset, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and other side effects. When taken in very large amounts (>350 mg daily), magnesium is POSSIBLY UNSAFE.

What should you not take with magnesium?

Taking magnesium with these medications might cause blood pressure to go too low. Some of these medications include nifedipine (Adalat, Procardia), verapamil (Calan, Isoptin, Verelan), diltiazem (Cardizem), isradipine (DynaCirc), felodipine (Plendil), amlodipine (Norvasc), and others.

How do you know you need magnesium?

The symptoms of magnesium deficiency are usually subtle unless your levels become severely low. Deficiency may cause fatigue, muscle cramps, mental problems, irregular heartbeat and osteoporosis. If you believe you may have a magnesium deficiency, your suspicions can be confirmed with a simple blood test.

Does magnesium make poop?

Helps alleviate constipation

If you're feeling stopped up, Magnesium Citrate can get things moving again. It helps relax the muscles of the digestive tract and neutralize stomach acid allowing your poop to pass on. Take it at night for a healthy bowel movement first thing in the morning.

What food is highest in magnesium?

Here are 10 healthy foods that are high in magnesium.

• Dark Chocolate.
• The avocado is an incredibly nutritious fruit and a tasty source of magnesium.
• Nuts are nutritious and tasty.
• Whole Grains.
• Some Fatty Fish.

What are the negative effects of magnesium?

Magnesium is generally well tolerated by healthy adults. Possible side effects include bloating, diarrhea, upset stomach, nausea, vomiting. Very large doses of magnesium can cause serious side effects, including: low blood pressure, irregular heartbeat, mental confusion, changes to breathing, coma, and death.

How long before bed should you take magnesium?

If you plan on using magnesium supplements as a sleep aid, we recommend taking it 1-2 hours before heading to bed. Consider adding magnesium to your sleep routine.

Who needs magnesium?

In addition to what you get from food, the highest dose you should take of magnesium supplements is: 65 mg/day for children ages 1-3. 110 mg/day for children ages 4-8. 350 mg/day for adults and children ages 9 and up.

What is the most absorbable form of magnesium?

Forms of magnesium that dissolve well in liquid are more completely absorbed in the gut than less soluble forms [2,14]. Small studies have found that magnesium in the aspartate, citrate, lactate, and chloride forms is absorbed more completely and is more bioavailable than magnesium oxide and magnesium sulfate [14-18].

What type of magnesium is best for muscle pain?

You can also try magnesium supplements. These are available in many forms such as magnesium oxide, magnesium chloride, and magnesium citrate. A 2015 study of the medical uses of magnesium recommends taking magnesium citrate because it's more easily absorbed by the body.

What is the best time of day to take magnesium?

Therefore, magnesium supplements can be taken at any time of the day, as long as you're able to take them consistently. For some, taking supplements first thing in the morning may be easiest, while others may find that taking them with dinner or just before bed works well for them.

What are the long term effects of taking magnesium?

When taken in very large amounts (>350 mg daily), magnesium is POSSIBLY UNSAFE. Large doses might cause too much magnesium to build up in the body, causing serious side effects including an irregular heartbeat, low blood pressure, confusion, slowed breathing, coma, and death.

Is Magnesium good for anxiety?

"Magnesium is a natural muscle relaxer, which immensely helps with anxiety. It's a nervous system relaxant and mineral that assists with fear, irritability, and restlessness. We hold on to so much tension within our muscles, and this is a super-healthy and easy way to create calmness."

Does magnesium cause weight gain?

There's a strong correlation between increased magnesium levels and weight loss. Reduced magnesium in the body has been linked to insulin resistance that could lead to weight gain.

Is it better to take magnesium in the morning or at night?

Therefore, magnesium supplements can be taken at any time of the day, as long as you're able to take them consistently. For some, taking supplements first thing in the morning may be easiest, while others may find that taking them with dinner or just before bed works well for them.

Why does magnesium make you poop?

Helps alleviate constipation

If you're feeling stopped up, Magnesium Citrate can get things moving again. It helps relax the muscles of the digestive tract and neutralize stomach acid allowing your poop to pass on. Take it at night for a healthy bowel movement first thing in the morning.

Does magnesium make you tired?

It Helps Regulate Sleep Quality

Not only can magnesium help you get to sleep, but it plays a part in helping you achieve deep and restful sleep as well. In one study, older adults were given 500 mg of magnesium or a placebo. Overall, the magnesium group had better quality of sleep.

Clinical Studies

• ^ Antioxidants do not prevent postexercise peroxidation and may delay muscle recovery.
• ^ Improving neuropathy scores in type 2 diabetic patients using micronutrients supplementation.
• ^ Effects of multivitamin/mineral supplementation on trace element levels in serum and follicular fluid of women undergoing in vitro fertilization (IVF).
• ^ The effect of melatonin, magnesium, and zinc on primary insomnia in long-term care facility residents in Italy: a double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial.
• ^ Comparison of the effects of vitamins and/or mineral supplementation on glomerular and tubular dysfunction in type 2 diabetes.
• ^ The impact of vitamin and/or mineral supplementation on lipid profiles in type 2 diabetes.
• ^ a b The impact of vitamins and/or mineral supplementation on blood pressure in type 2 diabetes.
• ^ N-acetylcysteine and magnesium improve biochemical abnormalities associated with myocardial ischaemic reperfusion in South Indian patients undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting: a comparative analysis.
• ^ Supplementation with alkaline minerals reduces symptoms in patients with chronic low back pain.
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• ^ Influence of a mineral water rich in calcium, magnesium and bicarbonate on urine composition and the risk of calcium oxalate crystallization.
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• ^ Voltage-dependent block by intracellular Mg2+ of N-methyl-D-aspartate-activated channels.
• ^ Nowak L, et al. Magnesium gates glutamate-activated channels in mouse central neurones. Nature. (1984)
• ^ Iseri LT, French JH. Magnesium: nature's physiologic calcium blocker. Am Heart J. (1984)
• ^ Konrad M, Schlingmann KP, Gudermann T. Insights into the molecular nature of magnesium homeostasis. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. (2004)
• ^ Alexander RT, Hoenderop JG, Bindels RJ. Molecular determinants of magnesium homeostasis: insights from human disease. J Am Soc Nephrol. (2008)
• ^ Furukawa Y, Kasai N, Torimitsu K. Effect of Mg2+ on neural activity of rat cortical and hippocampal neurons in vitro. Magnes Res. (2009)
• ^ a b c Mark LP, et al. Pictorial review of glutamate excitotoxicity: fundamental concepts for neuroimaging. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. (2001)
• ^ McMenimen KA, et al. Probing the Mg2+ blockade site of an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor with unnatural amino acid mutagenesis. ACS Chem Biol. (2006)
• ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Slutsky I, et al. Enhancement of learning and memory by elevating brain magnesium. Neuron. (2010)
• ^ a b Shimosawa T, et al. Magnesium inhibits norepinephrine release by blocking N-type calcium channels at peripheral sympathetic nerve endings. Hypertension. (2004)
• ^ Decollogne S, et al. NMDA receptor complex blockade by oral administration of magnesium: comparison with MK-801. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. (1997)
• ^ Hollmann MW, et al. Modulation of NMDA receptor function by ketamine and magnesium. Part II: interactions with volatile anesthetics. Anesth Analg. (2001)
• ^ a b Somjen GG. Ion regulation in the brain: implications for pathophysiology. Neuroscientist. (2002)
• ^ The role of the cat choroid plexus in regulating cerebrospinal fluid magnesium.
• ^ Allsop TF. Transfer of magnesium across the perfused choroid plexus of sheep. Aust J Biol Sci. (1986)
• ^ Langley WF, Mann D. Central nervous system magnesium deficiency. Arch Intern Med. (1991)
• ^ Arundine M, Tymianski M. Molecular mechanisms of calcium-dependent neurodegeneration in excitotoxicity. Cell Calcium. (2003)
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